“Bushido is realized in the presence of death. This means choosing death whenever there is a choice between life and death. There is no other reasoning.” ― Tsunetomo Yamamoto, Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai
Creation of Mass Mentality in Japan
Japan's rich culture and beliefs fueled their nationalism. This nationalism promoted Japanese aggression and the ideas of dying before surrendering.
Nationalism and Culture
The root of Japan's pride in their country stems from their rich culture. The current emperor is still of direct descendance from the beginning of Japan's foundation. They believe that the Emperor is a direct descendant of the Sun and is therefore a figurehead for Japan. This power is something the Japanese revere the emperor for and do everything in the name of the Emperor. The Emperor represents Japan, the Land of the Rising Sun, and it is a great shame to dishonor your emperor as doing so is also dishonoring Japan itself. The Japanese believe that their country was formed from a trail of blood. This passage from BBC's "Shinto and Nationalism" elaborates more on Japanese nationalism:
"Religion and politics: Shinto and nationalism. Japanese flags © Shinto can't be separated from Japan and the Japanese, but in the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries Shinto became an established state religion, inextricably linked to the cause of Japanese nationalism.
The link between Shinto and nationalism: Shinto legend tells that the emperors of Japan are descended in an unbroken line from the first Emperor, Jimmu Tenno, Amaterasu-Omikami's great-grandson. The native Japanese people themselves are descended from the kami who were present at the founding of Japan.
This story contains a very clear message that Japan is an old country, whose people are descended from the founding kami, and an Imperial family with an unbroken line of descent from Amaterasu herself. The Imperial family is older than the people of Japan, and descended from a kami of higher rank.
The political message of the story is that Japan is the way it should be, that its survival depends on maintaining the relationship between the Emperor and his people, and that the Emperor rules Japan because the gods want him to. Before the Meiji Restoration and the creation of State Shinto, this story was just one myth among many, and not something crucial to Japanese self-image.
Religion and politics:In the 6th century Buddhism was imported into Japanese religious life and Buddhism and Shinto together began to play a part in Japanese government. The Emperor and court had to perform religious ceremonies to make sure that the kami looked after Japan and its people. A court liturgical calendar was developed.
Over the next few centuries Buddhist influence in government grew stronger. The 17th century was dominated by state-imposed Buddhism (with many Shinto elements) as a reaction against an outside threat posed by Christian missionaries.
Japanese civic religion in the 17th century still included elements of Confucianism, while popular religion consisted mainly of Buddhism and Shinto. There was a movement towards a purer Shinto during the next two centuries, culminating in the Meiji Restoration towards the end of the 19th century, when Shinto became the established religion of Japan for a time."
"Religion and politics: Shinto and nationalism. Japanese flags © Shinto can't be separated from Japan and the Japanese, but in the late 19th and first half of the 20th centuries Shinto became an established state religion, inextricably linked to the cause of Japanese nationalism.
The link between Shinto and nationalism: Shinto legend tells that the emperors of Japan are descended in an unbroken line from the first Emperor, Jimmu Tenno, Amaterasu-Omikami's great-grandson. The native Japanese people themselves are descended from the kami who were present at the founding of Japan.
This story contains a very clear message that Japan is an old country, whose people are descended from the founding kami, and an Imperial family with an unbroken line of descent from Amaterasu herself. The Imperial family is older than the people of Japan, and descended from a kami of higher rank.
The political message of the story is that Japan is the way it should be, that its survival depends on maintaining the relationship between the Emperor and his people, and that the Emperor rules Japan because the gods want him to. Before the Meiji Restoration and the creation of State Shinto, this story was just one myth among many, and not something crucial to Japanese self-image.
Religion and politics:In the 6th century Buddhism was imported into Japanese religious life and Buddhism and Shinto together began to play a part in Japanese government. The Emperor and court had to perform religious ceremonies to make sure that the kami looked after Japan and its people. A court liturgical calendar was developed.
Over the next few centuries Buddhist influence in government grew stronger. The 17th century was dominated by state-imposed Buddhism (with many Shinto elements) as a reaction against an outside threat posed by Christian missionaries.
Japanese civic religion in the 17th century still included elements of Confucianism, while popular religion consisted mainly of Buddhism and Shinto. There was a movement towards a purer Shinto during the next two centuries, culminating in the Meiji Restoration towards the end of the 19th century, when Shinto became the established religion of Japan for a time."
"Central to the Japanese identity was the belief that it was Japan's divinely mandated right to rule its fellow Asians, whom it saw as inherently inferior. 'There are superior and inferior races in the world,' said the Japanese politician Nakajima Chikuhei in 1940, 'and it is the sacred duty of the leading race to lead and enlighten the inferior ones.' The Japanese, he continued, are 'the sole superior race of the world..' Moved by necessity and destiny, Japan's leaders planned to 'plant the blood of the Yamato [Japanese] race' on their neighboring nations' soil. They were going to subjugate all of the Far East.
Japan's military-dominated government had long been preparing for its quest. Over decades, it had crafted a muscular, technologically sophisticated army and navy, and through a military-run school system that relentlessly and violently drilled children on the nation's imperial destiny, it had shaped its people for war. Finally, through intense indoctrination, beatings, and desensitization, its army cultivated and celebrated extreme brutality in its soldiers. 'Imbuing violence with holy meaning,' wrote the historian Iris Chang, 'the Japanese imperial army made violence a cultural imperative every bit as powerful as that which propelled Europeans during the Crusades and the Spanish Inquisition.' Chang cited a 1933 speech by a Japanese general: 'Every single bullet must be charged with the Imperial Way, and the end of every bayonet must have National Virtue burnt into it.' In 1931, Japan tested the waters, invading the Chinese province of Manchuria and setting up a fiercely oppressive puppet state. This was only the beginning."
Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption by Laura Hillenbrand
Japan's military-dominated government had long been preparing for its quest. Over decades, it had crafted a muscular, technologically sophisticated army and navy, and through a military-run school system that relentlessly and violently drilled children on the nation's imperial destiny, it had shaped its people for war. Finally, through intense indoctrination, beatings, and desensitization, its army cultivated and celebrated extreme brutality in its soldiers. 'Imbuing violence with holy meaning,' wrote the historian Iris Chang, 'the Japanese imperial army made violence a cultural imperative every bit as powerful as that which propelled Europeans during the Crusades and the Spanish Inquisition.' Chang cited a 1933 speech by a Japanese general: 'Every single bullet must be charged with the Imperial Way, and the end of every bayonet must have National Virtue burnt into it.' In 1931, Japan tested the waters, invading the Chinese province of Manchuria and setting up a fiercely oppressive puppet state. This was only the beginning."
Unbroken: A World War II Story of Survival, Resilience, and Redemption by Laura Hillenbrand
This Crash Course history video explains nationalism and a nation-state and gives examples of how it applies to Japan.
"Death before Surrender"
The Mentality in Action
David Powers' article titled Japan: No Surrender in World War 2 states the following examples of the Death before Surrender mentality in Japan. Japanese lieutenant Hiroo Onoda fought on the Phillipines up until March of 1974, 29 years after the war was over, while every other group at war on the islands fought only until 1948. The lieutenant never surrendered after countless attempts at getting him to; he surrendered only after formal orders to were placed upon him.
Japan was struggling in its war with China since 1931. This caused the British to underestimate the Japanese army:
“Don’t you think our men are worthy of some better enemy than the Japanese?” General Robert Brooke-Popham’s battalion commander
After this, the Japanese went on to bomb Hawaii’s Pearl Harbor, sink the ships Repulse and Prince of Wales against Britain two days after, and capture China’s cities Singapore and Hong Kong. It goes to show how the Japanese will not let themselves to be thought weak.
When the Japanese garrisoned Singapore, 22,000 out of an estimated 30,000 died. This was in part because of most Japanese fighting until dead and killing themselves before being taken prisoner. Mothers threw themselves off of cliffs, babies in hand, so they would not be taken by American troops in Saipan.
The Battle of Iwo Jima
The Battle of Iwo Jima was a prime example of Japanese reluctance to surrender and the importance they saw in proving their strength. According to history.com, the U.S. Navy arrived at the island of Iwo Jima in February 1945. 23,000 Japanese troops were there to defend the island. The Japanese fought the battle from various underground installations such as tunnels. About Education’s background on the battle states that Japanese lieutenant general Tadamichi Kuribayashi was looking, from this battle, to inflict as many casualties on American forces as possible. Every man was to execute ten Americans per person before they fell themselves. Because of this, although America won the battle, they suffered more total casualties than the Japanese. The Japanese lost 17,845 to 21,570 during the battle while having only 216 captured as prisoner. 3,000 remained alive in the tunnels; some of them were still resisting or had committed ritual suicide. Japanese soldiers Yamakage Kufuku and Matsudo Linsoki did not surrender until 1951 although the battle had ended in 1945.
David Powers' article titled Japan: No Surrender in World War 2 states the following examples of the Death before Surrender mentality in Japan. Japanese lieutenant Hiroo Onoda fought on the Phillipines up until March of 1974, 29 years after the war was over, while every other group at war on the islands fought only until 1948. The lieutenant never surrendered after countless attempts at getting him to; he surrendered only after formal orders to were placed upon him.
Japan was struggling in its war with China since 1931. This caused the British to underestimate the Japanese army:
“Don’t you think our men are worthy of some better enemy than the Japanese?” General Robert Brooke-Popham’s battalion commander
After this, the Japanese went on to bomb Hawaii’s Pearl Harbor, sink the ships Repulse and Prince of Wales against Britain two days after, and capture China’s cities Singapore and Hong Kong. It goes to show how the Japanese will not let themselves to be thought weak.
When the Japanese garrisoned Singapore, 22,000 out of an estimated 30,000 died. This was in part because of most Japanese fighting until dead and killing themselves before being taken prisoner. Mothers threw themselves off of cliffs, babies in hand, so they would not be taken by American troops in Saipan.
The Battle of Iwo Jima
The Battle of Iwo Jima was a prime example of Japanese reluctance to surrender and the importance they saw in proving their strength. According to history.com, the U.S. Navy arrived at the island of Iwo Jima in February 1945. 23,000 Japanese troops were there to defend the island. The Japanese fought the battle from various underground installations such as tunnels. About Education’s background on the battle states that Japanese lieutenant general Tadamichi Kuribayashi was looking, from this battle, to inflict as many casualties on American forces as possible. Every man was to execute ten Americans per person before they fell themselves. Because of this, although America won the battle, they suffered more total casualties than the Japanese. The Japanese lost 17,845 to 21,570 during the battle while having only 216 captured as prisoner. 3,000 remained alive in the tunnels; some of them were still resisting or had committed ritual suicide. Japanese soldiers Yamakage Kufuku and Matsudo Linsoki did not surrender until 1951 although the battle had ended in 1945.
Leadership and Control
Japan's Military Government and Samurai/Bushido
According to Japan: No Surrender in WW2, young boys believed in following in the footsteps of their “ancient warrior tradition”. This can be traced back to the Samurai and Shogunate government in Feudal Japan. History.com’s article on Samurai and Bushido states the following: samurai were warriors hired by the lords of Japan in the 12th century. They were renowned for their courage and honor. When the military dictatorship called the Shogunate rose, samurai backed up the government’s power. This gave an organization of soldiers not only military power, but entry into Japan’s political and industrial ranks. One of the traditional beliefs of a Samurai warrior was a code known as Bushido- the way of the warrior.
Check out the Bushido code here: http://www.thebushidocode.com/index.html
One segment of the Bushido code was yu(u), or heroic courage. Soldiers from samurai to WW2 fighters believe that you need to make the courageous choice every time. The Bushido code states: “Most of the time, it is the simplest of situations which force us to make a choice between taking a chance to do the right thing or remain in the shadows of our own pride, embarrassment or fear and merely observe with regret.” One such act of courage following Bushido code is the act of Seppuku, or ritual suicide. In Japan, suicide was considered an honorable death. The Encyclopedia Britannica describes seppuku as the act of plunging a short sword into the left side of your abdomen, draw it to the right and then after that turning it upward. Suicide was popular in Japan during WW2, one such example being kamikaze pilots. Some driving factors as to why this was so popular include not only the desire to follow the Bushido code, but the devotion to their leader and desire to be strong (nationalism).
Emperor Hirohito and Militarism
Emperor Hirohito was the emperor of Japan during WW2. Although he claimed that the relation between him and the Japanese people was one of "mutual trust and affection" (Hirohito speech in 1946), scholars point to him being a huge contributor to WW2 Japanese combat and the country turned to ultra-nationalism and militarism under him. According to history.com, Japan's falling economic situation and also the strengthening of its military caused there to be less of a movement for democracy anymore and more influence from the emperor. Events like the Rape of Nanking and the takeover of Manchuria stemmed from such militarism and hostility with other countries (they used an incident with a train in Manchuria as an excuse for invasion). Hirohito did not punish the ones responsible for the terrible actions for fear that the military would strip him of his power.
According to Japan: No Surrender in WW2, young boys believed in following in the footsteps of their “ancient warrior tradition”. This can be traced back to the Samurai and Shogunate government in Feudal Japan. History.com’s article on Samurai and Bushido states the following: samurai were warriors hired by the lords of Japan in the 12th century. They were renowned for their courage and honor. When the military dictatorship called the Shogunate rose, samurai backed up the government’s power. This gave an organization of soldiers not only military power, but entry into Japan’s political and industrial ranks. One of the traditional beliefs of a Samurai warrior was a code known as Bushido- the way of the warrior.
Check out the Bushido code here: http://www.thebushidocode.com/index.html
One segment of the Bushido code was yu(u), or heroic courage. Soldiers from samurai to WW2 fighters believe that you need to make the courageous choice every time. The Bushido code states: “Most of the time, it is the simplest of situations which force us to make a choice between taking a chance to do the right thing or remain in the shadows of our own pride, embarrassment or fear and merely observe with regret.” One such act of courage following Bushido code is the act of Seppuku, or ritual suicide. In Japan, suicide was considered an honorable death. The Encyclopedia Britannica describes seppuku as the act of plunging a short sword into the left side of your abdomen, draw it to the right and then after that turning it upward. Suicide was popular in Japan during WW2, one such example being kamikaze pilots. Some driving factors as to why this was so popular include not only the desire to follow the Bushido code, but the devotion to their leader and desire to be strong (nationalism).
Emperor Hirohito and Militarism
Emperor Hirohito was the emperor of Japan during WW2. Although he claimed that the relation between him and the Japanese people was one of "mutual trust and affection" (Hirohito speech in 1946), scholars point to him being a huge contributor to WW2 Japanese combat and the country turned to ultra-nationalism and militarism under him. According to history.com, Japan's falling economic situation and also the strengthening of its military caused there to be less of a movement for democracy anymore and more influence from the emperor. Events like the Rape of Nanking and the takeover of Manchuria stemmed from such militarism and hostility with other countries (they used an incident with a train in Manchuria as an excuse for invasion). Hirohito did not punish the ones responsible for the terrible actions for fear that the military would strip him of his power.
Kamikaze Pilots
“AFTER UNDERGOING MODIFICATIONS, the Laffey steamed for the Pacific, reaching the front in late October. The Battle of Leyte Gulf, Japan's doomed effort to defeat the first Allied landings in the Philippines, had just ended, a swan song for the Imperial Navy and a prelude to a desperate mode of warfare. Taking inspiration from a legendary "Divine Wind" said to have protected ancient Japan from an attacking Mongol fleet, Japan's warlords fashioned a modern intervention: aerial suicide crashes aimed at sinking enemy ships--especially aircraft carriers. Multiplied many times, these tactics might prevent Japan's utter defeat.
The Allies attributed the initial sporadic suicide flights to crazy individual pilots. But in December 1944, as the Allies began a series of Philippine island invasions, suicide attacks increased in frequency and ferocity. During the December 7 assault on Ormoc, a city on the Leyte coast, Becton and crew watched a pilot deliberately dive to sink a transport. A destroyer intentionally struck by another enemy pilot had to be scuttled, and similar attacks damaged two more destroyers. On December 10, when Japanese pilots slammed into five vessels, the Laffey stood by the destroyer Hughes to assist with damage control and tend to wounded men, many of them grievously burned. The harrowing pattern reached a crescendo on January 6, 1945, off Luzon.”
-Battered beyond belief: at Okinawa, the USS Laffey absorbed an epic amount of suicidal punishment by David Sears
Kamikaze pilots were Japanese war pilots who would sacrifice their lives when flying their planes into enemy ships. The word kamikaze means “divine wind”. The roots of Japan’s strong connection to and honor for kamikaze stems from 13th century Japan when the Mongols came. According to historychannel.com, in 1274 the Mongols first attempted to invade Japan but had to cease after one day and retreat in their ships. While retreating from the Battle of Bun’ei, a typhoon took out ⅓ of the enemy ships and the rest had to retreat and sail back home. Returning with an impressive lineup of ships as well as Korean and Chinese forces, the Mongols returned in 1281 to fight the Battle of Koan. After being assaulted by yet another typhoon for two days straight, the damaged Mongol fleet never returned to Japan. Historychannel’s article states along with this that the Japanese believed that it could be none other than a divine force controlling the typhoons. Kamikaze was used as a term to describe the pilots to instill the belief in their heads that they were the “divine storm” that was going to knock out the ships and lead their country to victory.
A comparison arises between Japanese kamikaze pilots and Palestinian suicide bombers in terms of strategy and mindset. According to Apjjf.com’s article on Japan vs Contemporary War, suicide bombing is similar to strategic bombing of civilians because both seek to destroy the morale of the enemy. This is described as the most economical way to force surrender. The brother of a Palestinian suicide bomber, who’s name is Anwar Ayam, quotes the following: “It will destroy their economy. It causes more casualties than any other type of operation. It will destroy their social life. They are scared and nervous, and it will force them to leave the country because they are afraid.” Although the Kamikaze attack ships instead of civilians, both groups believe in an honorable sacrifice for their cause. It is noted that the success of Kamikaze attacks is due to the more ritualized sense of fighting and the blocking out of human images of the enemy. The goal of Kamikaze pilots were to terrorize the Allies with suicide bombings instead of killing enemy soldiers or winning war.
The Allies attributed the initial sporadic suicide flights to crazy individual pilots. But in December 1944, as the Allies began a series of Philippine island invasions, suicide attacks increased in frequency and ferocity. During the December 7 assault on Ormoc, a city on the Leyte coast, Becton and crew watched a pilot deliberately dive to sink a transport. A destroyer intentionally struck by another enemy pilot had to be scuttled, and similar attacks damaged two more destroyers. On December 10, when Japanese pilots slammed into five vessels, the Laffey stood by the destroyer Hughes to assist with damage control and tend to wounded men, many of them grievously burned. The harrowing pattern reached a crescendo on January 6, 1945, off Luzon.”
-Battered beyond belief: at Okinawa, the USS Laffey absorbed an epic amount of suicidal punishment by David Sears
Kamikaze pilots were Japanese war pilots who would sacrifice their lives when flying their planes into enemy ships. The word kamikaze means “divine wind”. The roots of Japan’s strong connection to and honor for kamikaze stems from 13th century Japan when the Mongols came. According to historychannel.com, in 1274 the Mongols first attempted to invade Japan but had to cease after one day and retreat in their ships. While retreating from the Battle of Bun’ei, a typhoon took out ⅓ of the enemy ships and the rest had to retreat and sail back home. Returning with an impressive lineup of ships as well as Korean and Chinese forces, the Mongols returned in 1281 to fight the Battle of Koan. After being assaulted by yet another typhoon for two days straight, the damaged Mongol fleet never returned to Japan. Historychannel’s article states along with this that the Japanese believed that it could be none other than a divine force controlling the typhoons. Kamikaze was used as a term to describe the pilots to instill the belief in their heads that they were the “divine storm” that was going to knock out the ships and lead their country to victory.
A comparison arises between Japanese kamikaze pilots and Palestinian suicide bombers in terms of strategy and mindset. According to Apjjf.com’s article on Japan vs Contemporary War, suicide bombing is similar to strategic bombing of civilians because both seek to destroy the morale of the enemy. This is described as the most economical way to force surrender. The brother of a Palestinian suicide bomber, who’s name is Anwar Ayam, quotes the following: “It will destroy their economy. It causes more casualties than any other type of operation. It will destroy their social life. They are scared and nervous, and it will force them to leave the country because they are afraid.” Although the Kamikaze attack ships instead of civilians, both groups believe in an honorable sacrifice for their cause. It is noted that the success of Kamikaze attacks is due to the more ritualized sense of fighting and the blocking out of human images of the enemy. The goal of Kamikaze pilots were to terrorize the Allies with suicide bombings instead of killing enemy soldiers or winning war.
"At the very moment of impact: Do your best. Every deity and the spirits of your dead comrades are watching you intently. Just before the collision it is essential that you do not shut your eyes for a moment so as not to miss the target. Many have crashed into the targets with wide-open eyes. They will tell you what fun they had"
-Instructions from a manual of basic instructions for kamikaze pilots
-Instructions from a manual of basic instructions for kamikaze pilots